The Assyrians

Of all the nations of the ancient Middle East, the Assyrians were best known for their ruthlessness and cruelty. It was this wrath that helped them build a powerful empire, but in the end, it also became the cause of their demise.

Assyrians - one of the most valiant nations in the history of humankind - struggled for centuries to dominate neighboring countries and at the time of its heyday their empire stretched from the Persian Gulf to the Egypt.

To some extent, their aggression was the result of geographical location. The Assyrian state was in northern Mesopotamia, on the river Tigris, north of Babylon. With no natural boundaries such as coasts or mountains it was an easy target of attacks from all sides. Therefore, in order to survive, it required strong army, always ready to fight. In addition, the Assyrians were skillful merchants and their country lay at the intersection of major trade routes in Mesopotamia. This obviously could be a source of vast riches for anyone capable of maintaining control over the area. Thus, many of the wars waged by the Assyrians were fought for profits.

Like neighboring Babylonians, the Assyrians were the Amorites, i.e. peoples of Semitic origin who conquered Sumer and Akkad following their divergence from Arabia by the end of the third millennium. Assyria emerged as a separate unit aroud 1900 BC, but it had to endure a few hundred years of Babylonian domination and barbaric power of the kingdom of Mitanni. In these difficult times not only did the Assyrians manage to maintain national identity, but also develop strong military tradition which through which in the 14th century BC their military career began in earnest.

The brutal army

Their conquests were very extensive - din the 12th century during the reign of king Tiglath-Pileser I Assyrian rule reached as far as the Mediterranean Sea. The history of their conquests, however, was variable. Along with the new peoples penetrating the territories of the Middle East, the old countries fell and new ones emerged. That meant new enemies for the Assyrians, the Arameans perhaps being the most notable ones. But against these odds, with Assyrian militarism becoming increasingly brutal from the 9th century BC onward, they managed to absorb much of Mesopotamia and northern Syria, thus forming a true empire.

After a period of partial collapse of the state, Assyria - led by the victorious general Tiglath-Pileser III, the founder of a new dynasty - began in 745 BC, his final and most spectacular expansion. The successors of Tiglath-Pileser III were skilled and ruthless rulers - especially Sargon II and Sennacherib. Addicted to his army, the Assyrians were excellent innovators in the field of military art. Quickly adapted to the needs of the army of iron, which supplanted bronze, as well as horse chariots, and as soon as we have bred horses able to carry a man, the first formed the cavalry. Defeated enemies, seeking refuge behind the walls of their fortresses, they had to give way to war machines of the Assyrians, who after breaking the enemy defense device bloody massacres defending the fortress inhabitants.

The wealth of a vast empire allowed the importation of stone, wood and precious metals, which are used as ornaments of great cities such as Ashur, Kalakh, Dur-Sharrukin (Chorsabad) and Nineveh. Each of the great rulers of the empire built his own palace, guarded by the enormous size of the statue in the shape of winged bull-headed people.

In addition to killing enemy soldiers, Assyrians conquered nations also restrained by the mass deportation of the ruling elite (the aristocracy, officials, craftsmen). The rest of the population, deprived of the guiding forces became more compliant. This cunning politician with a well-organized army and efficiently operating offices, helped Assyria survive centuries of war and unrest.

However, not all enemies managed to fully overcome - for example, concerned the Syrians. The continuous expansion of the Assyrian strained resources, including human. They came also new enemies. The source of weakness has also become a lust for power and frequent breakdowns in the royal family, leading to coups and coup that brought harm to the state.

End of empire

Under the reign of Ashurbanipal ( 668-627 BC) Assyria seemed strong as ever. She managed to break the grand coalition of enemies. Although has been lost control of the distant Egypt, but it only helped to strengthen the state. But the type of repressive government can not afford the slightest moment of weakness, and when this occurred, the effects were immediate and devastating. In the thirties of the seventh century BC Assyria shaken by violent internal conflicts that started the disintegration of the empire. For weakening the enemy attacked from the east Medes, and the Babylonians noon. In 614 BC it was conquered old capital of Assyria - Ashur, in 612 years BC fallen such a big city like Nineveh and Kalakh. This was the moment that the Assyrians were murdered en masse - so fiercely that eventually they completely disappeared from the surface of the Earth.

Did you know...

• The Assyrians were among the first who used cavalry in warfare. They excelled at riding chariots.
• Each of the great kings of the Empire built his own palace decorated with huge, beautifully carved reliefs which depicted his exploits as a ruler, warrior and hunter.

Cretans and Achaeans

One of the earliest European civilizations developed on Crete - an island in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. When the Cretan culture was declining, its place was taken by Mycenaean civilization, created by the Greek tribe of the Achaeans.

Crete lies at the southern end of the Aegean Sea full of islands spattered between the present day Greece and Turkey. Cretan culture, even if it was the creation of the island's local population, certainly evolved through contacts with Asia Minor (Turkey) and, to a lesser extent, Egypt. As early as around 1950 BC there were magnificent palaces and large, thriving cities. Such development was likely owed to advanced olive and vine cultivation as well as vibrant trade relations with other countries of the eastern Mediterranean.

Centuries later, splendor of the former Cretan civilization was legendary among the ancient Greeks. The most famous legend was about the people of Athens having to send young boys and girls to Crete every year in honor of the Cretan king Minos. The youth were meant to be a sacrifice to Minotaur - a monster with the head of a bull on the body of a man, living in a maze. As the story goes, the bloody ritual ended when Minotaur was killed by Theseus who was the first to manage to escape from the Labyrinth. Successful escape was possible thanks to Ariadne who gave Theseus a ball of thread so that he could follow it on his way back.

Because of the myth the Cretan culture is also referred to as the Minoan civilization, "Minoan" being an adjective derived from the name of King Minos. However, it seems that actually it was bulls and not humans that were offered as sacrifice in Crete, and the only people likely to suffer might have been acrobats specializing in capturing bulls by the horns and jumping over their backs.

Subtle Cretans

The flamboyant murals, decorated in bright colors, indicate that the people of Crete lived cheerful, joyful lives. Perhaps they were also of peaceful disposition - their palaces and the city had no fortifications and for centuries the soldiers carried out their duties without the use of any weapons.

The palaces featured a complex system of multiple chambers. Palace of Knossos was certainly the biggest and it may have been a royal residence, though the palaces of Phaistos, Malia and Agia Triada were almost as impressive. The cities and palaces were fitted with sewage and drainage systems.

Around 1750 BC a catastrophic event, possibly an earthquake, destroyed the palaces. The resilient Cretans quickly replaced them with new ones, making them even more robust. However, around 1650 BC Cretan civilization entered into a gradual decline. It has never recovered from another disaster that hit the island around 1450 BC. It was probably the result of a volcanic eruption on Thira - an island some 110 km (68 miles) away. The eruption created a deadly wave that swept through Crete. The tremors could be felt throughout the eastern Mediterranean, and some believe that the destruction of Thira gave rise to the myth of Atlantis - a continent that was swallowed by the sea overnight. The prominent Greek philosopher Plato was among those who wrote about Atlantis.

After the disaster palaces were not rebuilt and just a few generations later, the Cretan civilization collapsed under the onslaught of foreign invaders. There are written records, somewhat reminiscent of early Greek language, according to which the aggressors were Achaeans - a tribe originating from mainland Greece.

Achaeans came to Greece from the north around the time when the Cretan civilization was emerging. In contrast to the short and clean-shaven Cretans, Achaeans were tall and sported impressive beards. They were very warlike and used chariots in the warfare – a technique completely unknown to Cretans. Around their cities Achaeans built fortifications, and in the middle of the cities themselves they erected fortified strongholds - the Acropolis.

Mycenae

Most of these cities were located in the Peloponnese - a peninsula in southern Greece. The most impressive of them was Mycenae, the seat of Achaean rulers, described in poetry and legends as a city "rich in gold". For this reason, the culture of the Achaeans is often called Mycenaean culture (ca. 1600-1100 BC).

Around 1600 BC the cities and culture of Achaeans were in full bloom. Initially, they were strongly influenced by Cretan culture. Achaeans quickly spread to most of the islands of the Aegean Sea and the fall of Crete allowed them to control trade throughout the eastern Mediterranean, which ensured huge profits. At that time Mycenae were strong enough to negotiate with the Hittites and Egypt as equals.

The first signs of the crisis appeared in the thirteenth century BC. One of the reasons might have been a long and exhausting war with Troy. In the end, the main Achaean cities fell in the 12th century BC.

Yet another reason for the decline could be the arrival of Dorians - a different Greek tribe, slowly infiltrating and replacing the Achaeans. As a result, the Achaeans began mass emigrattions to Ionia (west coast of present day Turkey) or assimilated with Dorians. By the 11th century BC the ability to write disappeared and so did works of art. Disasters destroyed Greece which fell into the period known as the dark ages.

Important dates

• approx. 1950 BC
  Minoan cities and palaces emerge on Crete. Achaean immigation to Greece.
• approx. 1750 BC
  The destruction of cities and palaces on Crete, likely as a result of an earthquake. There are rebuilt soon after the disaster.
• approx. 1600 BC
  The peak period of the Cretan civilization; development of of rich Achaean culture, remaining under Cretan influence.
• approx. 1450-1375 BC
  Another destruction of Crete, probably by a volcanic eruption; decadent period of Cretan culture; Achaean domination.
• approx. 1260-1180 BC
  The period of Trojan War between the Achaean and Trojans.

Pharaonic Egypt

A seemingly unchanging civilization of ancient Egypt lasted almost 3000 years. It left behind impressive monuments that still inspire awe: the pyramids, the Sphinx and the tomb of Tutankhamun.

Egypt was the cradle of one of the great civilizations of the ancient world. It was born in the valley of the Nile. The Sumerian civilization of Mesopotamia had already existed for several centuries at that time and it undoubtedly had an impact on the development of early Egypt. While Mesopotamia, because of its location, was exposed to invasions of various peoples and foreign influences, Egypt remained in relative isolation, separated from its neighbors by vast deserts. Once the Egyptian civilization crystallized, it proved very stable, conservative, resistant to change and foreign influences almost till the very end of its existence. Certain changes did take place of course, but their pace was so slow pace that even the ancient contemporaries considered the Egyptian civilization to be mysterious and timeless.

A Greek historian aptly described Egypt as a gift of the Nile. Indeed, vast majority of the population settled on both banks of the Nile. The populated area formed a narrow strip that stretched upstream, expanding only in the delta where the river splits into several branches that empty into the Mediterranean Sea.

The origins of civilization

Unlike the rivers of Mesopotamia, the Nile rose and fell in annual cycles, causing regular flooding that left fertile sediments and filled irrigation canals. As a result, the Nile valley was very fertile and the crops harvested there were enough not only to feed the farmers and their families, but also extensive administration, urban populations and people employed in large scale construction projects.

History of Ancient Egypt begins around 3000 BC when Menes (also known as Narmer), the king of Upper Egypt (valley) conquered Lower Egypt (Delta). The conquest was followed by unification - he united Egyptian state lasted 1000 years intact with the exception of a few brief periods. Menes became the founder of the first of 33 dynasties of Egypt. The last one in the series - the Ptolemaic dynasty of the Greek kings - ruled Egypt until 30 BC when queen Cleopatra reportedly committed suicide.

The knowledge of three thousand years of the history of Pharaonic Egypt was divided into three major periods: the Old, Middle and New Kingdom. These periods of stability are separated by years of crises and foreign invasions which are conventionally called the First, Second and Third Intermediate Period. The exact turning points that mark the beginning and end of each period are the subject of debates among historians. Besides, most of the dates before the beginning of the second millennium BC can only be approximate.

The reign of the first two dynasties makes up Early Dynastic Period (ca. 3050–2686 BC) which preceded the Old Kingdom. Even at this early stage of development many lasting elements of Egyptian civilization can be distinguished. The king was already embodied deity, although it was not until the New Kingdom that the title of pharaoh (literally "big house") appeared. Egyptian religious system was highly complicated, with afterlife-related beliefs playing an important role. They had significant impact on the invention of mummification methods, meant to secure eternal life for deceased monarchs. Priests and a large cast of clerks were quick to gain importance - they were already during the Early Dynastic Period.

Old Kingdom

During the Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC), Egypt enjoyed greatest stability that ensured safe development without fear of interference from the outside. It was then that the Egyptian civilization gained its mature form as evidenced by the first great royal stone tombs in the form of pyramids. The famous step pyramid at Saqqara was designed by Imhotep and built for Djoser, a ruler of the third dynasty. The semi-legendary figure of the first architect and scholar known by name was worshiped as the guardian of writers and later as a god, the patron of medicine.

The largest of the pyramids was erected in Giza for the ruler of the fourth dynasty - Cheops. These huge monuments, precisely oriented in line with cardinal directions, embodied not just technological advances, but primarily the triumph of brilliant organization of work of a large number of people.

By the end of the Old Kingdom the role of aristocracy rose, weakening the central power of the monarchy. During the First Intermediate Period (2181–1991 BC), Egypt was divided between several rivaling local dynasties. As a result of the general unrest, the pyramids and tombs were devastated and their treasures looted.

Middle Kingdom

The reunification of Egypt gave rise to the so-called Middle Kingdom (2134–1690 BC). The capital of Egypt was moved from Memphis to Thebes in Upper Egypt. The nearby Valley of the Kings became a place of burial of many rulers, laid to rest in tombs carved in the rock. In Thebes's districts of Karnak and Luxor several impressive temples and monuments were built.

It was during this period that the Egyptian religion was formed. It was believed that afterlife was not available just for the monarchs, but also for ordinary people - as long as they prepare for it properly. It may have been this belief that brought a new habit of placing small wooden figures of soldiers, craftsmen and servants in the graves - people from these groups were supposed to accompany the deceased in the afterlife. These statues, called shawabti, made it possible to understand what everyday life of the ancient Egyptians was like.

Late period of the Middle Kingdom was a time powerful kings who diminished the role of the aristocracy, realized large-scale irrigation projects and expanded the Egyptian influence by conquering the southern part of Nubia. But then another crisis began, marking the beginning of Second Intermediate Period. Its culmination point was the rule of Hyksos peoples in Lower Egypt.

New Kingdom

New Kingdom (1549-1069 BC) was the last era of prosperity and greatness for the country. It is also the last period of Egyptian isolation - Egypt became entangled in Middle East conflicts, possibly partly because of the Hyksos who taught Egyptians new warfare techniques (especially chariot warfare). Additionally, by driving the much-hated Asians out of Egypt, pharaoh's army reached Syria and Palestine, thus creating an empire whose boundaries changed over the centuries.

These developments changed the face of the New Kingdom a bit. Common perception of the pharaohs shifted from divine beings to that of earthly conquerors. Historical records also mention revival of political life, in which plotting was often used in the struggle for power. One of the most remarkable figures of this period was a woman - Queen Hatshepsut, depicted with all the attributes of royal power, including the artificial beard.

Successive combative pharaohs of the era pushed the borders of the Egyptian empire as far as the Euphrates. Egypt's power peaked during the reign of Thutmose III (1479–1425 BC). Clay tablets with diplomatic records discovered at Tell el-Amarna archive and dating back to Amenhotep III (ca. 1390-1353 BC) and his successor Amenhotep IV demonstrate wide international contacts the Egyptian rulers had with the countries and peoples of the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea and the Middle East.

One God

Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (ca. 1353-1336 BC) is best known for conducting a great religious reform. He replaced thousands of Egyptian deities, including the mighty god Amun, with just one god Aten which was the epitome of the solar disk. The pharaoh then assumed the name of Akhenaten, broke with the priests of Thebes and moved the capital to Amarna.

The reasons behind these actions remain something of a mystery. Some historians see Akhenaten as the first ruler in the recorded history to have introduced a universal monotheistic religion. Others crticize him for bigotry and fanatitism. An influential figure behind the reform might have been the pharaoh's wife Nefertiti. The new cult was propagated by means of powerful bureaucratic system and proclaimed in the form of statues as well as inscriptions carved in stone. The Pharaoh's power was strong enough to prevent any open opposition for the new religion.

Akhenaten is attributed with lack of concern for the empire's prestige. While the pharaoh was busy introducing the religious reform, allies and vassals of Egypt were on their own, trying to keep enemies off their borders. Several reasons, one being the people secretly sticking to the traditional beliefs, may have contributed to the failure of Akhenaten's religious reform - it did not outlive its mighty creator and advocate. After Akhenaten's death his name was meticulously removed from all existing lists of Egyptian rulers. All inscriptions and monuments that reminded of the Pharaoh were destroyed too.

Tutankhamun

All this eradication was done on behalf of a little boy on the throne, Akhenaten's son-in-law named Tutankhaten. The royal court moved back to Thebes and the Pharaohs got rid of "Aten" in their names. Thus, Tutankhaten became known as Tutankhamun.

Tutankhamun ascended the throne at the age of ten and ruled for just a few years (ca. 1332-1323 BC). He was interred in the Valley of the Kings where his tomb was eventually buried under a layer of rubble during the construction of the tomb for one of later pharaohs. As a result, while all other known burial places of pharaohs were plundered, the tomb of Tutankhamun survived virtually intact. More than three thousand years later, in 1922, it was discovered by English archaeologist Howard Carter. Treasures found inside the tomb made ​​the young Tutankhamun one of the most recognizable rulers of ancient Egypt.

Combative pharaohs

Throughout the period of the New Kingdom Egypt was involved in Middle East conflicts. At the time of warrior pharaohs such as Seti I (1290-1279 BC) and Ramses II (1279-1213 BC) Egypt once again gained superpower status. Ramses's reign also saw great construction projects such as the Karnak Temple Complex and an array of temples at Abu Simbel. Boastful inscriptions of his own deeds and great portraits are a proof of Ramses's immense ambitions.

Alas, the wars waged by Ramses II took their toll. Shortly after his reign had ended, a long process of decline began. In the tenth century BC the power in Egypt was seized by foreign dynasties from Libya, Nubia and finally - in the second half of the seventh century BC - from Assyria. The final effort to preserve the imperial status was the conquest of Syria, but it failed following a decisive defeat in the Battle of Carchemish (605 BC) at the hands of the Babylonian army. The defeat meant the loss of the entire Middle East empire for Egypt.

The end of the Pharaohs of Egypt

In 525 BC, the Egypt became part of the Persian Empire. Then the country was conquered by Alexander the Great (356-323 BC). After Alexander's death the power was seized by one of his generals, Ptolemy, who founded the Greek Ptolemaic dynasty ruling until 30 BC. During their rule, Egypt was being increasingly blended into the Hellenistic civilization.

The end of Egypt's independence came with the death of Cleopatra. Egyptian civilization was gradually dying, replaced by the Greco-Latin culture. The last known hieroglyphs, dating back to 394 AD, can be considered as the final message delivered by the ancient Egyptians.