Pharaonic Egypt

A seemingly unchanging civilization of ancient Egypt lasted almost 3000 years. It left behind impressive monuments that still inspire awe: the pyramids, the Sphinx and the tomb of Tutankhamun.

Egypt was the cradle of one of the great civilizations of the ancient world. It was born in the valley of the Nile. The Sumerian civilization of Mesopotamia had already existed for several centuries at that time and it undoubtedly had an impact on the development of early Egypt. While Mesopotamia, because of its location, was exposed to invasions of various peoples and foreign influences, Egypt remained in relative isolation, separated from its neighbors by vast deserts. Once the Egyptian civilization crystallized, it proved very stable, conservative, resistant to change and foreign influences almost till the very end of its existence. Certain changes did take place of course, but their pace was so slow pace that even the ancient contemporaries considered the Egyptian civilization to be mysterious and timeless.

A Greek historian aptly described Egypt as a gift of the Nile. Indeed, vast majority of the population settled on both banks of the Nile. The populated area formed a narrow strip that stretched upstream, expanding only in the delta where the river splits into several branches that empty into the Mediterranean Sea.

The origins of civilization

Unlike the rivers of Mesopotamia, the Nile rose and fell in annual cycles, causing regular flooding that left fertile sediments and filled irrigation canals. As a result, the Nile valley was very fertile and the crops harvested there were enough not only to feed the farmers and their families, but also extensive administration, urban populations and people employed in large scale construction projects.

History of Ancient Egypt begins around 3000 BC when Menes (also known as Narmer), the king of Upper Egypt (valley) conquered Lower Egypt (Delta). The conquest was followed by unification - he united Egyptian state lasted 1000 years intact with the exception of a few brief periods. Menes became the founder of the first of 33 dynasties of Egypt. The last one in the series - the Ptolemaic dynasty of the Greek kings - ruled Egypt until 30 BC when queen Cleopatra reportedly committed suicide.

The knowledge of three thousand years of the history of Pharaonic Egypt was divided into three major periods: the Old, Middle and New Kingdom. These periods of stability are separated by years of crises and foreign invasions which are conventionally called the First, Second and Third Intermediate Period. The exact turning points that mark the beginning and end of each period are the subject of debates among historians. Besides, most of the dates before the beginning of the second millennium BC can only be approximate.

The reign of the first two dynasties makes up Early Dynastic Period (ca. 3050–2686 BC) which preceded the Old Kingdom. Even at this early stage of development many lasting elements of Egyptian civilization can be distinguished. The king was already embodied deity, although it was not until the New Kingdom that the title of pharaoh (literally "big house") appeared. Egyptian religious system was highly complicated, with afterlife-related beliefs playing an important role. They had significant impact on the invention of mummification methods, meant to secure eternal life for deceased monarchs. Priests and a large cast of clerks were quick to gain importance - they were already during the Early Dynastic Period.

Old Kingdom

During the Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC), Egypt enjoyed greatest stability that ensured safe development without fear of interference from the outside. It was then that the Egyptian civilization gained its mature form as evidenced by the first great royal stone tombs in the form of pyramids. The famous step pyramid at Saqqara was designed by Imhotep and built for Djoser, a ruler of the third dynasty. The semi-legendary figure of the first architect and scholar known by name was worshiped as the guardian of writers and later as a god, the patron of medicine.

The largest of the pyramids was erected in Giza for the ruler of the fourth dynasty - Cheops. These huge monuments, precisely oriented in line with cardinal directions, embodied not just technological advances, but primarily the triumph of brilliant organization of work of a large number of people.

By the end of the Old Kingdom the role of aristocracy rose, weakening the central power of the monarchy. During the First Intermediate Period (2181–1991 BC), Egypt was divided between several rivaling local dynasties. As a result of the general unrest, the pyramids and tombs were devastated and their treasures looted.

Middle Kingdom

The reunification of Egypt gave rise to the so-called Middle Kingdom (2134–1690 BC). The capital of Egypt was moved from Memphis to Thebes in Upper Egypt. The nearby Valley of the Kings became a place of burial of many rulers, laid to rest in tombs carved in the rock. In Thebes's districts of Karnak and Luxor several impressive temples and monuments were built.

It was during this period that the Egyptian religion was formed. It was believed that afterlife was not available just for the monarchs, but also for ordinary people - as long as they prepare for it properly. It may have been this belief that brought a new habit of placing small wooden figures of soldiers, craftsmen and servants in the graves - people from these groups were supposed to accompany the deceased in the afterlife. These statues, called shawabti, made it possible to understand what everyday life of the ancient Egyptians was like.

Late period of the Middle Kingdom was a time powerful kings who diminished the role of the aristocracy, realized large-scale irrigation projects and expanded the Egyptian influence by conquering the southern part of Nubia. But then another crisis began, marking the beginning of Second Intermediate Period. Its culmination point was the rule of Hyksos peoples in Lower Egypt.

New Kingdom

New Kingdom (1549-1069 BC) was the last era of prosperity and greatness for the country. It is also the last period of Egyptian isolation - Egypt became entangled in Middle East conflicts, possibly partly because of the Hyksos who taught Egyptians new warfare techniques (especially chariot warfare). Additionally, by driving the much-hated Asians out of Egypt, pharaoh's army reached Syria and Palestine, thus creating an empire whose boundaries changed over the centuries.

These developments changed the face of the New Kingdom a bit. Common perception of the pharaohs shifted from divine beings to that of earthly conquerors. Historical records also mention revival of political life, in which plotting was often used in the struggle for power. One of the most remarkable figures of this period was a woman - Queen Hatshepsut, depicted with all the attributes of royal power, including the artificial beard.

Successive combative pharaohs of the era pushed the borders of the Egyptian empire as far as the Euphrates. Egypt's power peaked during the reign of Thutmose III (1479–1425 BC). Clay tablets with diplomatic records discovered at Tell el-Amarna archive and dating back to Amenhotep III (ca. 1390-1353 BC) and his successor Amenhotep IV demonstrate wide international contacts the Egyptian rulers had with the countries and peoples of the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea and the Middle East.

One God

Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (ca. 1353-1336 BC) is best known for conducting a great religious reform. He replaced thousands of Egyptian deities, including the mighty god Amun, with just one god Aten which was the epitome of the solar disk. The pharaoh then assumed the name of Akhenaten, broke with the priests of Thebes and moved the capital to Amarna.

The reasons behind these actions remain something of a mystery. Some historians see Akhenaten as the first ruler in the recorded history to have introduced a universal monotheistic religion. Others crticize him for bigotry and fanatitism. An influential figure behind the reform might have been the pharaoh's wife Nefertiti. The new cult was propagated by means of powerful bureaucratic system and proclaimed in the form of statues as well as inscriptions carved in stone. The Pharaoh's power was strong enough to prevent any open opposition for the new religion.

Akhenaten is attributed with lack of concern for the empire's prestige. While the pharaoh was busy introducing the religious reform, allies and vassals of Egypt were on their own, trying to keep enemies off their borders. Several reasons, one being the people secretly sticking to the traditional beliefs, may have contributed to the failure of Akhenaten's religious reform - it did not outlive its mighty creator and advocate. After Akhenaten's death his name was meticulously removed from all existing lists of Egyptian rulers. All inscriptions and monuments that reminded of the Pharaoh were destroyed too.

Tutankhamun

All this eradication was done on behalf of a little boy on the throne, Akhenaten's son-in-law named Tutankhaten. The royal court moved back to Thebes and the Pharaohs got rid of "Aten" in their names. Thus, Tutankhaten became known as Tutankhamun.

Tutankhamun ascended the throne at the age of ten and ruled for just a few years (ca. 1332-1323 BC). He was interred in the Valley of the Kings where his tomb was eventually buried under a layer of rubble during the construction of the tomb for one of later pharaohs. As a result, while all other known burial places of pharaohs were plundered, the tomb of Tutankhamun survived virtually intact. More than three thousand years later, in 1922, it was discovered by English archaeologist Howard Carter. Treasures found inside the tomb made ​​the young Tutankhamun one of the most recognizable rulers of ancient Egypt.

Combative pharaohs

Throughout the period of the New Kingdom Egypt was involved in Middle East conflicts. At the time of warrior pharaohs such as Seti I (1290-1279 BC) and Ramses II (1279-1213 BC) Egypt once again gained superpower status. Ramses's reign also saw great construction projects such as the Karnak Temple Complex and an array of temples at Abu Simbel. Boastful inscriptions of his own deeds and great portraits are a proof of Ramses's immense ambitions.

Alas, the wars waged by Ramses II took their toll. Shortly after his reign had ended, a long process of decline began. In the tenth century BC the power in Egypt was seized by foreign dynasties from Libya, Nubia and finally - in the second half of the seventh century BC - from Assyria. The final effort to preserve the imperial status was the conquest of Syria, but it failed following a decisive defeat in the Battle of Carchemish (605 BC) at the hands of the Babylonian army. The defeat meant the loss of the entire Middle East empire for Egypt.

The end of the Pharaohs of Egypt

In 525 BC, the Egypt became part of the Persian Empire. Then the country was conquered by Alexander the Great (356-323 BC). After Alexander's death the power was seized by one of his generals, Ptolemy, who founded the Greek Ptolemaic dynasty ruling until 30 BC. During their rule, Egypt was being increasingly blended into the Hellenistic civilization.

The end of Egypt's independence came with the death of Cleopatra. Egyptian civilization was gradually dying, replaced by the Greco-Latin culture. The last known hieroglyphs, dating back to 394 AD, can be considered as the final message delivered by the ancient Egyptians.